Urinary Excretion and Paracetamol

Urinary Excretion and Paracetamol Investigateurinary excretion of paracetamol in man. Paracetamol, known as acetaminophen in the USA, is one of the most commonly used analgesic and antipyretic drugs available over-the-counter. Its common name derives from the full chemical name: para-acetyl-amino-phenol, with the chemical formula C8H9NO2 and amolecular weight of 151.17. Paracetamol does not have anysignificant anti-inflammatory action and therefore cannot be accuratelydescribed as a non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drug (NSAID), as was oncethought. Its mechanism of action is still poorly understood but some studieshave suggested that it inhibits a variant of the cyclo-oxygenase enzyme COX-1, which has been designated COX-3 (Swierkosz et al. 2002). Paracetamol actsmainly in the central nervous system and endothelial cells, rather than inplatelets and immune cells. Boutaud and colleagues (2002) hypothesised thatthis may be explained by the high levels of peroxides found in the latter cell types, which inhibit the action of paracetamol. There has been some debate on thesubject, with other researchers proposing an inhibitory action against COX-2(Graham Scott 2005). Further research is required to fully elucidate the mechanism of action at the molecular level. Metabolism and excretion Following oral administration and absorption from the gastrointestinal tract, paracetamol enters the blood and is distributed throughout the body. It is metabolised by enzymes in the hepatocytes of the liver and the majority is converted to inactive metabolites by conjugation with sulphate or glucuronide. This is then filtered out of theblood by the kidneys and into the urine, via active renal tubular secretion. Asmall portion of paracetamol remains unaltered and passes into the urine viaglomerular filtration and passive absorption (Morris Levy 1984). Thereis also a small proportion of the paracetamol that is metabolised by the thecytochrome P450 system, which results in the formation of cysteine or glutathioneconjugates and mercapturic acid conjugates (figure 2). These products ofoxidative metabolism are also excreted renally (Andrews et al. 1976). Paracetamol has a low therapeuticindex, so the therapeutic dose is very close to the toxic dose. Toxicity canoccur following a single large dose (>10g) or with chronic lower doses(4-5g/d) and is usually seen as hepatotoxicity, which can result in deathwithin several days (Wikipedia). Toxicity occurs when the enzymesresponsible for catalysing sulphate and glucuronide conjugation becomesaturated, forcing metabolism to be increasingly dependent upon the cytochromeP450 system. This results in formation of a toxic metabolite,N-acetyl-p-benzo-quinone imine (NAPQI), which is normally mopped up by bindingto the sulphydryl group of glutathione to form inactive conjugates andmercapturic acid. Toxicity occurs when the glutathione supply becomes exhaustedand NAPQI binds indiscriminately to molecules within the cell, such asmembranes, to cause cell damage and death, seen as acute hepatic necrosis. 1)Major pathway for normal metabolism 2)Minor pathway via cytochrome P450 system produces toxic metabolite (NAPQI),shown in red. Normally this is detoxified by binding to glutathione. 3) Toxicity occurs when pathways 1 and 2 are overloadedand NAPQI binds to molecules of the cell, causing damage. Modifiedfrom Rang et al. 1995. Aim of experiment The aim of this experiment is toinvestigate the renal excretion of paracetamol, by measuring the levels ofparacetamol metabolites in human urine over 6 hours following an oral dose of500mg. The total excretion will be assessed using the spectrophotometricmethod. From this data the elimination rate constant (KE) and thehalf-life (T1/2) will be calculated. Qualitative analysis of thevarious metabolites will be conducted using appropriate chemical identificationtechniques. METHOD A standard stock solution ofparacetamol was prepared at 1mg/cm3 and dilutions were made to givea range of known concentrations. 1 cm3 of the paracetamol solutionwas added to 1 cm3 blank urine and 4 cm3 4M HCl, andmixed thoroughly. A blank duplicate was also prepared, using water instead ofurine. After an hour in a boiling water bath the tubes were cooled and wateradded, up to 10 cm3. 1 cm3 of this hydrolysed urinesolution was added to 10 cm3  of colour forming solution, mixed and allowed to stand for40 minutes. The absorbance of each solution was measured, using thespectrophotometer, zeroing the instrument using the drug free urine sample inbetween solutions. This produced the readings for the calibration curve. Thecollected timed urine samples were then processed in the same way, adding 1 cm3water instead of paracetamol solution. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Known concentrations of paracetamolunderwent spectrophotometry to measure the absorbance at 620nm. These resultswere used to produce a calibration curve (figure 3). The timed urine sampleswere then analysed following the same protocol and the absorbance at 620nm wasused, in conjunction with the calibration curve to ascertain the concentrationof paracetamol in the urine. Unfortunately, half of the samples producedabsorbances outside the range of the calibration curve. Because this curve isnon-linear, extrapolation and dilution cannot be used to accurately deduce theconcentration of paracetamol in the urine. For the purposes of this report theconcentration for these samples has been declared as greater than 800ug/cm3.This is not very satisfactory and further experiments must be done to extendthe range of the calibration curve to the maximum absorbancy of the timedsamples. The values of KE and T1/2 have been calculatedto demonstrate the procedure, but are inaccurate and will need revisi ng onceaccurate concentrations have been established form the calibration curve. Table 1: Timed urine sample Mean absorbance 620nm Conc. ug/cm3 Vol. Urine (ml) Total drug (ug of paracetamol) Excretion rate mg/h 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 hour 0.256 192 245 47040 47 2 hours 1.918 >800 50 40000 40 3 hours 1.769 >800 38 30400 30.4 4 hours 1.028 >800 55 44000 44 5 hours 0.349 246 135 33210 33.2 6 hours 0.255 192 160 30720 30.7 Table 1 contains the absorbanceresults of the timed urine samples and the deduced concentration of paracetamolin the urine, as well as the hourly excretion rate. The total amount ofparacetamol excreted over the 6 hour period was 225.3mg, which is 45% of theorally administered dose. Due to problems discussed above, this is anunderestimate of the true percentage of dose excreted renally, which has beenfound to be 55-70% by other studies (Steventon et al. 1996). When log of the excretion rate(equivalent to total drug excreted per hour) is plotted against time, a linearplot should be achieved, from which KE can be estimated. The slope of this straight lineequates to : KE /2.303, which gives a value for KE of0.094. Using the formula: T1/2 =0.692/ KE , the valueof T1/2 = 7.36 hours. This states that it takes the body7.36 hours to excrete half of the drug administered. This is longer than the1-4 hours usually quoted for paracetamol (Rang et al. 1995), and is notsurprising given the underestimation of the paracetamol urine concentration.With proper calibration, this would be expected to decrease to nearer thepreviously found results. There were no results for thequalitative studies for metabolite composition, but it would be expected thatsulphate and glucuronide conjugates would constitute the majority of the sample,with a smaller quantity of unchanged paracetamol, cysteine/glutathione andmercapturic acid metabolites. These results only represent oneindividual on one day and replications of this experiment are crucial.Nutritional status, recent alcohol consumption, ethnic background, concurrentdrug usage and illness must all be taken into account as factors that mayaffect paracetamol metabolism and excretion (Riordan Williams 2002, Patel Tang 1992). Further analysis of paracetamolexcretion .  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Hepatotoxicity and drug interactions Table 2 shows how concurrent use of phenobarbital, ananti-epileptic drug, can increase the severity of liver damage caused byparacetamol administration and its subsequent metabolism. Table 2: Effect of Phenobarbital onparacetamol induced hepatotoxicity TreatmentDose of Paracetamol (mg/kg) Severity of liver necrosis None 375 1-2+ Phenobarbital 375 2-4+_________ This occurs due to metabolism ofphenobarbital by enzymes of the P450 cytochrome system, which results inupregulation of their production. As explained in the introduction (see fig.2), P450 enzymes also metabolise paracetamol, to form the toxic metaboliteNAPQI. This is normally a minor pathway but as the amount of P450 enzymesavailable increases, the activity of this pathway also increases. This resultsin a larger than normal amount of NAPQI, which is mopped up and inactivated byglutathione. Glutathione supplies will eventually run out, which occurs soonerif the person is malnourished. When this happens the toxic metabolite binds tocell components, causing necrosis. To prevent this occurring, such as in casesof overdose, N-acetylcysteine can be given (Routledge et al. 1998), which isrequired for glutathione synthesis and helps to boost it. This allows agreater amount of the toxic metabolite to be mopped up and reduces cell damage. .  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Paracetamol metabolism following hepatotoxicity Table 3: Plasmaparacetamol concentrations(ug/cm3) Patients Plasma paracetamol 4 hrs after 12hrsafter Half life (h) ingestion ingestion _______________________________________________________________ noliver damage (18) 2.9 +/= 0.3 163 +/=20 29.5 +/=6 liverdamage (23) 7.2+/= 0.7 296 +/= 26 124 +/=22___ Table 3 shows that, in a study, theability of patients with liver damage to eliminate paracetamol from the bloodis much decreased, compared to healthy people. This is seen by the prolongedhalf-life and the high levels of paracetamol in the plasma. The plasma leveldoes come down by 12 hrs, which indicates that there is enough functional liverreserve to metabolise some of the drug, but the level is still very high. Toascertain whether it is just conjugation that is affected, or whether all thepathways are affected equally it would be necessary to quantify the levels ofdifferent metabolites in the blood and urine. As conjugation is responsiblefor the majority of metabolism, damage to all systems will still show up asaffecting conjugation the most. In theory reduced clearance of asubstance is useful for monitoring the severity of liver damage, but in thecase of paracetamol it would be unwise as it could potentiate the hepatotoxiceffects and worsen the liver condition. It is also unnecessary as there arealready a number of reliable blood tests for liver function and damage. REFERENCES Andrews, R. S., Bond, C. C., Burnett, J., Saunders, A. Watson, K. 1976 Isolation and identification of paracetamol metabolites. J Int Med Res 4,34-9. Boutaud, O., Aronoff, D. M., Richardson, J. H., Marnett, L. J. Oates, J. A. 2002 Determinants of the cellular specificity of acetaminophen as an inhibitor of prostaglandin H(2) synthases. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 99,7130-5. Graham, G. G. Scott, K. F. 2005 Mechanism of action of paracetamol. Am J Ther 12, 46-55. Morris, M. E. Levy, G. 1984 Renal clearance and serum protein binding of acetaminophen and its major conjugates in humans. J Pharm Sci 73, 1038-41. Patel, M., Tang, B. K. Kalow, W. 1992 Variability of acetaminophen metabolism in Caucasians and Orientals. Pharmacogenetics 2, 38-45. Rang, H. P., Dale, M.M., Ritter, J.M. 1995 Pharmacology: Churchill Livingstone. Riordan, S. M. Williams, R. 2002 Alcohol exposure and paracetamol-induced hepatotoxicity. Addict Biol 7, 191-206. Routledge, P., Vale, J. A., Bateman, D. N., Johnston, G. D., Jones, A., Judd, A., Thomas, S., Volans, G., Prescott, L. F. Proudfoot, A. 1998 Paracetamol (acetaminophen) poisoning. No need to change current guidelines to accident departments. Bmj 317, 1609-10. Steventon, G. B., Mitchell, S. C. Waring, R. H. 1996 Human metabolism of paracetamol (acetaminophen) at different dose levels. Drug Metabol Drug Interact 13, 111-7. Swierkosz, T. A., Jordan, L., McBride, M., McGough, K., Devlin, J. Botting, R. M. 2002 Actions of paracetamol on cyclooxygenases in tissue and cell homogenates of mouse and rabbit. Med Sci Monit 8, BR496-503. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paracetamol.

A Comparative Analysis of Devlin and Mill Essay

It can be assumed that if J.S. Mill and Lord Devlin ever coexisted some intoxicating deliberations regarding the role of morality in society would transpire. However, time has a peculiar habit of erecting boundaries amid centuries, allowing us only to presume discourse between the contemporary and the historical. Consequentially, each individual has an obligation to formulate his or her own appraisal established through the logistic unification of the particular instant and one’s own conception of idealistic righteousness. But the acquisition of an infallible and tangible philosophy with universal application would be as obstinate to create as it would to fathom. In such regard, the apparatus on which debate must rest is well constructed. If each were to believe in the intricate purity of his inspiration than no philosophy but his own would be received. It is subsequently the responsibility of that creature to sell his faculty, ensuing the continued survival of dispute. It is the function of this formula to patiently arrive at a conciliated truth in which the majority of a society can divulge. If the perceived truth were to have an impact on the thirst and fertility of an entire society than it would be in that institution’s interest to create a fountain from which everyone could drink. It is this motive that has justifiably birthed meticulous curiosity in the works of both Lord Devlin and John Stuart Mill, each of whom have crafted disparate cures for the perils of harm in society, but neither of whom have succeeded in absorbing the values of the other. However, to adequately dissect values there must first be an ample understanding of the beliefs of each party concerned, only then can one interpret the mutual ethics from the personal. Mill perceives only one instance in which society is justified in interfering with or limiting the freedoms of its adult members, that being to prevent harm to others. Though Mill would also claim that not all harm could rationalize intruding on an individual’s freedom, the harm must overshadow the liberty being reduced. Additionally, Mill introduces two forms of harm, direct and indirect. Direct harm occurs when the actions of one member of a society has a negative impact on another as a result of that individuals  behavior. Consequently, Mill would argue that a mugger has had a direct harm on his victim because the outcome of the event was immediate and detrimental. Indirect harm is habitually tolerable because most acts can affect others; accordingly, if the act has a detrimental effect on others but only as being consequential of the affect of the individual on himself, it is justifiable. For instance, if a man chooses to remain in ill health rather than obtain appropriate medical assistance, he is detrimental to society, but only as a result of him harming himself. This is distinguishable as indirectly harmful because there was an intermediate source of the harm, that being the man’s preference. Contrary to Mill, Devlin would categorize this form of indirect harm as immoral and injurious to society as a whole. While Mill argues that harmless actions, such as a man choosing ill health rather than being a productive member of a society must not be the subject of social coercion, Devlin would assert that the harmless action is in actuality damaging societies moral composition, requiring it to be made the subject of social control. Stressed by Devlin is the belief that â€Å"†¦there are certain standards of behavior or moral principles which society requires to be observed; and the breach of them is an offense not merely against the person who is injured but against society as a whole.† In context we find the incongruity. Mill approaches the permissibility of regulating personal liberties only as an edict to preventing harm, never consenting to use the regulation of liberty to enforce morals. In contrast, Devlin’s tactic is to implement a moral principle to help protect society from itself, trusting that without this principle there would be social disintegration. Moreover Devlin asserts that moral legislation is crucial to maintain a social bond. He maintains that society has a right to protect its own existence by barring behavior that threatens that existence. This is distinctly divergent from Mill’s perceptions on paternalism. Mill claimed that there must be unconditional rejection of paternalism by the state, only invalidated to prevent persons from selling themselves into slavery. Reinforcing his case Mill argued that paternalistic intervention is unlikely to work because an individual is acutely more aware of his or her own needs than the state is. Additionally, he argued that it is improbable  compulsion would work. This can also be taken into account in the form of liberty. Mill alleges that an autonomous life has more value than a life of dependency, since one cannot be forced to be autonomous paternalism has a damaging effect on an individual. As a contemporarily relevant issue, Devlin indirectly delivers his rebuttal to paternalism by embodying a stance on homosexuality. He defends societies right to protect its own existence by vetoing behavior that threatens its sustainability, since homosexuality is detrimental to society that union has a right to prohibit it. This is consistent with Devlin’s definition of â€Å"tangible harm†, described as a harm that instigates a diminution of the physical strength of society. When practiced in trivial quantities these activities can be harmless, however as its participants grow it has a linear effect on its harm. In accordance, he also argues that â€Å"unrestricted indulgence in vice† will weaken an individual to the extent that he ceases to be a useful member of society and society itself will deteriorate in the event that a sufficient number of its members are plagued by vice. However, the tangible harm that certain forms of conduct allegedly cause is restricted to the applicability of that behavior’s breach to the shared morality. If homosexuality is injurious to society it is so regardless of whether it violates the shared morality or not. In conjunction with this notion, Mill would affix his fundamental belief that this individual’s decision to practice homosexua lity is impartial because it is a sovereign decision. Mill asserts, â€Å"If a person possess a tolerable amount of common sense and experience, his own mode of laying out his existence is the best, not because it is the best in itself but because it is his own mode.† Likewise, if it is generally believed that sexual immorality will effectively cause the collapse of a society there may be validation for suppressing this deviant conduct but individual freedom prevents us from accepting this. If the repression of seemingly deviant acts were the norm there would exist an agency to justify intolerances founded on, among many others, religion and race. Mill would also note that it allocates a leeway to repressing self-regarding actions, which include liberty of conscience and expression, tastes and pursuits and liberty of association. Besides the value of the self-regarding sphere, Mill stresses the importance of freedom of expression, which in proviso to Devlin, is capable in itself of tugging at the societal nit. Devlin has suggested that society is a culturally elastic entity that persists through various changes in social mores, owing to his elastic principles it can be argued that he has a general tolerance for individual freedom. However, he rejects Mill’s perception of freedom on the basis that he has an idealistic picture of human beings. He professes that Mill holds an earnest view of an individual conscientiously doing what he thinks is right regardless of the acceptance of his behavior. This is easily categorized as Mill’s claim to freedom of expression. According to Mill, opinions or beliefs cannot be suppressed for the reason that they are among other things immoral or shocking, the only validity for suppression is if they are harmful. As Devlin has claimed, â€Å"†¦freedom of action follows naturally on [freedom of expression]; men must be allowed to do what they are allowed to talk about doing†¦what Mill visualizes is people doing things he himself would disapprove of, but doing them earnestly and openly and after thought and discussion†¦This seems to me on the whole an idealistic picture.† But Devlin believes this is seldom true of those who violate the shared morality of society. He believes that most individuals acknowledge the fallibility of their conduct but continue it for lust and money. He believes, â€Å"Freedom to do what you know to be bad is worthless.† However, a person may breach the values of his society with the belief that those morals are not intrinsic and encompass various modes of conduct that he believes are morally permissible. If the action does not harm others the liberty to pursue ones own tastes and pursuits should be boundless. By this notion, vices are only such if they are acknowledged by those who engage in them. Mill reinforces his conviction against censorship by indicating that a censored opinion might be true, or if it is literally false may contain part of the truth, additionally, if it is entirely false, a censored opinion would prevent true opinions from becoming dogma and as a dogma an unchallenged truth will lose its meaning. An individual, as mentioned by Mill, is more inclined to pursue personal righteousness with unlimited access to the truth, which requires freedom of expression. As Devlin would concede, the pursuit of individual infallibility would coincide with the aspiration of a morally entrenched society. Although Devlin has the benefit of criticizing Mill’s assertions without the risk of rebuttal he has yet to disprove the accuracy of Mill’s libertarian approach. Devlin’s disputes address a number of Mill’s themes, including his harm principle, paternalism and freedom of expression, but fail to yield an internalized acceptance of their circular approach to discrediting one of philosophies nobles. Furthermore, Devlin’s disintegration thesis attempts to secede harm to society from harm to individuals, as such, his appeal to the concept of gross social injury could be viewed as an application of a public harm principle. As such, the cumulative effect of harm on a collective group of individuals has the capacity to cause a disturbance in public interest. Consequently, the incongruity between Mill and Devlin can be reduced to the acceptance that Mill embraces both public and private harm, while Devlin incorporates a deviant version of private impairment and a similar notion of public hurt. If, then, the claims made by Devlin are accurate, it can also be argued that Mill would support the legal enforcement of shared morality. As of yet society still covets the search for a public fountain, probing our faculties for the cure to all our vices, but refusing to accept the likelihood that there may never be enough water to satisfy every persons thirst.

Mythological References in Hamlet Essay - 1313 Words

Mythological References in Hamlet Whats in a name? Hamlets good friend and confidant Horatio is doomed by the etymology of his nomenclature to give good speech. Shakespeare has gifted Horatio with an elegant lucidty that, when inspected closely, enables the reader to better comprehend the nature of the play; one of his first addresses is key in setting the tone of what James Joyce called the grave and constant in human suffering (Campbell 8). This is also a principal theme of classical mythology, and to fully understand Hamlet as a tragic hero, a comprehension of the mythological references at the beginning of the play must be foremost in the readers mind. These metaphoric intimations of tragedy; leaked in Hamlets and†¦show more content†¦(I.i.ll7-24) A fascinating event like an eclipse was used to explain away strange behavior or portend odd goings-on. It is believed that Hamlet was written no earlier than 1598. Around this time, Copernicus concept of a heliocentric universe was gaining strong popularity. It is possible that Shakespeare might have been influenced by this idea; since he play is thought to be set around 1200, it is more likely that a subconscious consignment of information passed from Shakespeares pen into Horatios intellect. With a potential new perception of how the sun and moon and earth move in their orbits and how those movements affect things like the tides, Horatio might have equated this with motions and circumstances affecting people and sets up his metaphor to perform a double duty. One, he views the visitation of King Hamlets host as precurse to fierce events, almost like the calm before the storm(within Neptunes empire). Something bad is going to happen: anytime you see a ghost it is usually bad news. T wo, he uses the phrase Disasters in the sun as a kind of prologue-like epithet for Hamlets light and to express the magnitude of the omen coming on. 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Red Bull Case Study - 743 Words

Red Bull Statement of the Problem: Red Bull’s enviable position is changing. More energy drinks have been introduced in the market. The competitors of Red Bull gives the same effects when drinking these energy drinks by giving extra energy for work and improved performance for athletes. How can Red Bull compete with its competitors and still catch the attention of their market? Assumptions of the Study: Product – Red Bull as an energy drink contains carbon dioxide, Thai- ingredients of B-vitamins, caffeine, sugar and the amino acid taurine. It has distinct packaging, 8.3-ounce silver-and-blue cans with two bulls about to head-butt each other. Red Bull’s cans are â€Å"sexy† with their size implying that they†¦show more content†¦Red Bull also sponsored a Formula 1 motor racing team. Price – Red Bull is affordable since it caters to students, drivers, rice farmers and athletes. Its price must not be too expensive in order to compete with its competitors. Since there are lots of energy drink, consumers will buy energy drink in the average price range since all these energy drinks offer the same effects regarding the price. The price of Red Bull must be suitable for the budget of their target market. Recommendation: Consumers have different taste and preference when it comes to food and drinks. Red Bull should launched additional products that has different flavors in order to satisfy the taste and preference of the different consumers. They must be willing to modify the taste, in order to address the preference of the consumers on the different counties they are selling to. Like in Japan, consumers preferences are constantly changing so they must constantly adapt and change the flavor in order to satisfy the taste and preference of consumers in Japan. Red Bull must also have products that has natural ingredients in case consumers prefer to drink healthy and organic energy drinks. These natural ingredients are perfect for consumers who have sickness like diabetes, since it healthy ingredients unlike the normal Red Bull which contains sugar and caffeine. Red Bull must constantly adapt to theShow MoreRelatedCase Study : Red Bull4107 Words   |  17 Pagesassessment offence. Student ID: 77081201 Level of Study: MA Module Title: International Marketing Course Title: MA INTERNATIONAL TRADE AND FINANCE Module Tutor June Dennis Full text word count: 3,937 words Student Name: Do Khac Huong Student Signature: __________________________________________ Date of Submission: Name of first marker: Mark: Name of second marker: Mark: 1. Introduction Red bull is a leading energy drink company in the world, withRead MoreRed Bull Case Study1166 Words   |  5 PagesRED BULL CASE STUDY Q1. How will you characterize Red Bulls overall global marketing strategy? 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SWOT Analysis Strengths †¢ There are highly differentiated between competing sellers. †¢ Low entry barriers †¢ The results of consumption are more beneficial than soda †¢ Premium price with a high profit margin Weaknesses †¢ Criticisms on health effects †¢ The industry is rapidly growing with new entrants †¢ Strong competition requires heavy promotion in order to stand out amongst competitors †¢ The economy forces customers to choose the better value at a lower price OpportunityRead MoreRed Bull Case Study1942 Words   |  8 Pages 1. How will you characterize Red Bull’s overall marketing strategy (global, glocal or local)? Globalization is the deviation of businesses, philosophies, or technologies to propagate throughout the world, as well as the process of making this happen (SearchCIO, 2014). Glocalization is the idea that in a global market, when it is customized for the local or culture in where it is sold, a service or product is more likely to succeed (Rouse, 2013). Localization refers to the adaptation ofRead MoreRed Bull Brand Case Study1143 Words   |  5 Pages{draw:rect} {draw:rect} {draw:rect} {draw:rect} CASE STUDY REPORT RED BULL Table of Contents {text:bookmark-end} {text:bookmark-start} Executive {text:bookmark-end} summary: Additional points this paper discuses is the marketing program of Red Bull and how it depend mainly on Buzz advertising. The brand extension of Red Bull is an interesting point because it developed some products under its parent drink. Low sugar drink for example. The last point was about the advertisingRead MoreRed Bull Case Study3127 Words   |  13 PagesRed Bull Report – Sales Forecasting 2010 Tiago LK, Jovan A., Tamas F. BBCi_Principles of Sales 4/20/2010 RED BULL REPORT Red Bull operates within the energy drink sector of the soft drink market and has been the leading market share holder in this area for the past several years. It was founded by Dietrich Mateschitz, an Austrian who studied world trade and commerce in Vienna. In 1982, Mateschitz came back to Austria from a visit to Thailand with some samples of an energy drink calledRead MoreMktg 2101 Red Bull Case Study Essay826 Words   |  4 PagesMKTG 2101 Consumer Behaviour Case Study - Red Bull: Rampaging through Global Markets 1. What segmentation base has Red Bull adopted to target customers? How should Red Bull further segment the market in the future? Red Bull have adopted a segmentation base strategy relating to market demographics. In particular the company has targeted young active people aged 16 – 29 years. Red Bull also use geography, identifying mainly university students and urban professionals who neededRead MoreBull Case Study Analysis : External Analysis Of Red Bull1097 Words   |  5 PagesBA4302 Red Bull Case Analysis External Analysis Political Factors: These include indirect or direct political factors affecting Red Bull. Among others are government instability, markets’ bureaucracy, corruption levels, the function and freedom of press, protectionism measures of home market, and market lobbying initiatives. Red Bull endeavors to impact specific political factors and pertinent laws and regulations through its efforts of lobbying. For instance, the moment the FDA were ready for theRead MoreCase Study Red Bull - Further Market Expansion5441 Words   |  22 Pages________________________________________ Global Marketing Case Study - â€Å"Red Bull: The global market leader in energy drinks is considering further market expansion.† ________________________________________ Ann Bendroth Date: 29.05.2009 Global Marketing – Case Study – Red Bull ____________________________________________________________ _______ Table of Content 1.0 Purpose of the case study .................................................................................... 3 1.1 Company